Cultures > Palmyrene Empire

Palmyrene Empire

This article is about the political history of the Palmyrene empire between 270–273. For the general political, cultural and economic history of the city, see Palmyra. For other uses, see Palmyra (disambiguation).Palmyrene Empire← Vexilloid of the Roman Empire270–273Vexilloid of the Roman Empire →The Palmyrene Empire in AD 271.CapitalPalmyraLanguagesPalmyrene[1]Greek[1]GovernmentMonarchyMonarch • 267/270–272Vaballathus • 273–273AntiochusHistorical eraLate Antiquity • Established270 • Disestablished273Today part of Syria Egypt Iraq Israel Jordan Lebanon Palestine Saudi Arabia TurkeyThe Palmyrene Empire (270–273), a splinter state centered at Palmyra, broke away from the Roman Empire during the crisis of the third century. It encompassed the Roman provinces of Syria Palaestina, Arabia Petraea, Egypt and large parts of Asia Minor.Zenobia ruled the Palmyrene Empire as regent for her son Vaballathus, who had become King of Palmyra in 267. In 270 Zenobia managed to conquer most of the Roman east in a relatively short period, and tried to maintain relations with Rome. However, in 271 she claimed the imperial title for herself and for her son and fought a short war with the Roman emperor Aurelian, who conquered Palmyra and arrested the self-proclaimed Empress. A year later the Palmyrenes rebelled, which led Aurelian to destroy Palmyra. The Palmyrene Empire is hailed highly in Syria and plays an important role as an icon in Syrian nationalism.Contents [hide]1Background2Establishment3Reconquest by Rome3.1Aftermath4Evaluation and legacy5See also6Notes7References7.1Citations7.2BibliographyBackground[edit]Main article: Crisis of the Third CenturyFollowing the murder of Roman emperor Alexander Severus in 235,[2] general after general squabbled over control of the empire,[3] the frontiers were neglected and subjected to frequent raids by Carpians, Goths and Alamanni,[4][5] in addition to outright attacks from the aggressive Sassanids in the east.[6] Finally, Shapur I of Persia inflicted a disastrous defeat upon the Romans at the Battle of Edessa in 260,[7] capturing the Roman emperor Valerian and soon, Quietus and Macrianus rebelled against Valerian's son Gallienus and usurped the imperial power in Syria.[8]The Palmyrene leader Odaenathus was declared king,[9] and remained nominally loyal to Gallienus, forming an army of Palmyrenes and Syrian peasants to attack Shapur.[note 1][7] In 260, Odaenathus won a decisive victory over Shapur in a battle near the Euphrates.[8] Next, Odaenathus defeated the usurpers in 261,[8] and spent the remainder of his reign fighting the Persians.[11][12][13] Odaenathus received the title Governor of the East,[8] and ruled Syria as the imperial representative,[14] and declared himself King of Kings.[note 2][18] Odaenathus was assassinated along with his son Hairan in 267,[8] and according to the Augustan History and Joannes Zonaras, Odaenathus was killed by his cousin whose name in the Augustan History is Maeonius.[19] The Augustan History also claim that Maeonius was proclaimed emperor for a very brief period, before being executed by the soldiers.[19][20][21] However, no inscriptions or other evidence exist for Maeonius' reign, and he was probably killed immediately after assassinating Odaenathus.[22][23]Odaenathus was succeeded by his minor sons with Zenobia; the ten-year-old Vaballathus.[24] Under the regency of Zenobia,[24][25] Vaballathus was kept in the shadow while his mother assumed actual rule and consolidated her power.[24] The queen was careful not to provoke Rome and took for herself and her son the titles that her husband had, while working on guaranteeing the safety of the borders with Persia, and pacifying the dangerous Tanukhids tribes in Hauran.[24]Establishment[edit]Vaballathus (right) as king on the obverse of an Antoninianus. To the left, Aurelian as Augustus on the reverse.Aided by her generals, Septimius Zabbai, a general of the army, and Septimius Zabdas, the chief general of the army,[26] Zenobia started an expedition against the Tanukhids in the spring of 270, during the reign of emperor Claudius II.[27] Zabdas sacked Bosra, killed the Roman governor and marched south securing Roman Arabia.[27][28] According to the Persian geographer Ibn Khordadbeh, Zenobia herself attacked Dumat Al-Jandal but could not conquer its castle.[29] However, Ibn Khordadbeh is confusing Zenobia with al-Zabbā, a semi-legendary Arab queen whose story is often confused with Zenobia's story.[30][31][32][33]In October of 270,[34] a Palmyrene army of 70,000 invaded Egypt,[35][36] and declared Zenobia queen of Egypt.[37] The Roman general Tenagino Probus was able to regain Alexandria in November, but was defeated and escaped to the fortress of Babylon, where he was besieged and killed by Zabdas, who continued his march south and secured Egypt.[38] Afterward, in 271, Zabbai started the operations in Asia Minor, and was joined by Zabdas in the spring of that year.[39] The Palmyrenes subdued Galatia,[39] and occupied Ankara, marking the greatest extent of the Palmyrene expansion.[40] However, the attempts to conquer Chalcedon were unsuccessful.[39]The Palmyrene conquests were done under the protective show of subordination to Rome,[41] Zenobia issued the coinage in the name of Claudius' successor Aurelian with Vaballathus depicted as king,[note 3] while the emperor allowed the Palmyrene coinage and conferred the Palmyrene royal titles.[42] However, toward the end of 271, Vaballathus took the title of Augustus (emperor) along with his mother.[41]Reconquest by Rome[edit]Vaballathus as Augustus, on the obverse of an Antoninianus.Zenobia as Augusta, on the obverse of an Antoninianus.Aurelian-Zenobia war.In 272, Aurelian crossed the Bosphorus and advanced quickly through Anatolia.[43] According to one account, Marcus Aurelius Probus regained Egypt from Palmyra,[note 4][44] while the emperor continued his march and reached Tyana.[45] The fall of Tyana lent itself to a legend; Aurelian to that point had destroyed every city that resisted him, but he spared Tyana after having a vision of the great philosopher Apollonius of Tyana, whom he respected greatly, in a dream.[46] Apollonius implored him, stating: "Aurelian, if you desire to rule, abstain from the blood of the innocent! Aurelian, if you will conquer, be merciful!".[47] Whatever the reason for his clemency, Aurelian sparing of Tyana paid off, many more cities submitted to him upon seeing that the emperor would not exact revenge upon them.[46]Entering Issus and heading to Antioch, Aurelian defeated Zenobia in the Battle of Immae.[48] Zenobia retreated to Antioch then fled to Emesa while Aurelian advanced and took the former.[49] After regrouping, the Romans first destroyed a Palmyrene garrison stationed at the fort of Daphne,[note 5][51] and headed south to Apamea,[52] then continued to Emesa and defeated Zenobia again at the Battle of Emesa, forcing her to evacuate to the capital.[53] Aurelian marched through the desert and was harassed by Bedouins loyal to Palmyra; however, as soon as he arrived at the city gates, he negotiated with the Bedouins, who betrayed Palmyra and supplied the Roman army with water and food.[54] Aurelian besieged Palmyra in the summer of 272,[55] and tried to negotiate with Zenobia, on the condition that she surrender herself in person to him, to which she answered with refusal.[40] The Romans tried to breach the city defenses several times but were repelled,[56] however, as the situation deteriorated, Zenobia left the city and headed east to ask the Persians for help.[57] The Romans followed the empress, arrested her near the Euphrates and brought her back to the emperor. Soon after, the Palmyrene citizens asked for peace,[57] and the city capitulated.[55][58]Aftermath[edit]Aurelian, personification of Sol, defeats the Palmyrene Empire, and celebrates ORIENS AVG, the Augustus Rising Sun.Aurelian spared the city and stationed a garrison of 600 archers led by a certain Sandarion, as a peacekeeping force.[59] The defenses were destroyed and most of the military equipments were confiscated.[60] Zenobia and her council were taken to Emesa and put on trial. Most of the high ranking Palmyrene officials were executed,[61] while Zenobia's and Vaballathus's fates are uncertain.[62]In 273, Palmyra rebelled under the leadership of a citizen named Septimius Apsaios,[63] and contacted the Roman prefect of Mesopotamia Marcellinus offering him to usurp the imperial power.[63] Marcellinus delayed the negotiations and sent word to the Roman emperor,[63] while the rebels lost their patience and declared a relative of Zenobia named Antiochus as Augustus.[64] Aurelian marched against Palmyra and was helped by a Palmyrene faction from inside the city, headed by a man with a senatorial rank named Septimius Haddudan.[65][66]Aurelian spared Antiochus,[66] but razed Palmyra to the ground.[67] The most valuable monuments were taken by the emperor to decorate his Temple of Sol,[58] while buildings were smashed, people were clubbed and cudgeled and Palmyra's holiest temple pillaged.[58]Evaluation and legacy[edit]According to Mark Whittow and Warwick Ball, the declaration of imperial status truly aimed at Rome's throne, not just Palmyrene independence.[68][69] Vaballathus' inscriptions indicate the style of a Roman emperor, and according to Ball, Zenobia and Vaballathus were contenders for the Roman imperial throne, following a plan similar to that of Vespasian, who ascended the throne after building his power in Syria.[68][69] Fergus Millar, although tending toward the view that it wasn't only an independence movement, believes there is not yet enough evidence to conclude the nature of Palmyra's revolt.[70]Andrew M. Smith II considers the Palmyrene empire as a bid for both independence and the Roman throne.[63] Palmyrene royalty used Eastern titles such as king of kings that had no relevance in Roman politics, while the conquests were in the interest of Palmyrene commerce. Finally, it was only in the last regnal year of Zenobia and Vaballathus that the Roman imperial rank was claimed.[63] Ferdinand Lot agrees that it was a Palmyrene movement aimed toward independence,[71] which is an almost universal view amongst Arab and Syrian scholars such as Philip Khuri Hitti.[72][73]The revolt of Palmyra is used as a theme in Syrian nationalism and Palmyra is viewed as exclusively Syrian,[74] and treated as a fighting city that threw off the imperial dominance and relieved the people from tyranny.[75] A Syrian TV show was produced based on Zenobia's life, and she was the subject of a biography written by Syria's former minister of defense Mustafa Tlass.[75]See also[edit]Gallic EmpireNotes[edit]Jump up ^ No evidence exist for Roman units serving in the ranks of Odaenathus; whether Roman soldiers fought under Odaenathus or not is a matter of speculation.[10]Jump up ^ The first decisive evidence for the use of this title for Odaenathus is an inscription dated to 271, posthumously describing Odaenathus as king of kings.[15][16] However, Odaenathus' son Hairan I, is directly attested as "King of Kings" during his lifetime. Hairan I was proclaimed by his father as co-ruler and was assassinated during the same assassination incident that took the life of Odaenathus and it is unlikely that Odaenathus was simply a king while his son held the King of Kings title.[17]Jump up ^ Claudius died in August 270, shortly before Zenobia's invasion of Egypt.[34]Jump up ^ All other accounts indicate that a military action was not necessary, as it seems that Zenobia withdrawn her forces in order to defend Syria.[44]Jump up ^ Daphne was a garden located six miles south of Antioch.[50]References[edit]Citations[edit]^ Jump up to: a b Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 280.Jump up ^ Averil Cameron (1993). The Later Roman Empire, AD 284-430. p. 3.Jump up ^ Averil Cameron (1993). The Later Roman Empire, AD 284-430. p. 4.Jump up ^ Yann Le Bohec (2013). Imperial Roman Army. p. 196.Jump up ^ Patrick J. Geary (2003). The Myth of Nations: The Medieval Origins of Europe. p. 81.Jump up ^ Nic Fields (2008). The Walls of Rome. p. 12.^ Jump up to: a b Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. p. 177.^ Jump up to: a b c d e David L. Vagi (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, C. 82 B.C.--A.D. 480: History. p. 398.Jump up ^ Beate Dignas; Engelbert Winter (2007). Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals. p. 159.Jump up ^ Pat Southern (17 November 2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-4411-7351-5.Jump up ^ Edward Gibbon (2004). The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 501.Jump up ^ Clifford Ando (2012). Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. p. 237.Jump up ^ Lukas De Blois (1976). The Policy of the Emperor Gallienus. p. 3.Jump up ^ Nathanael J. Andrade (2013). Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World. p. 333.Jump up ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 78.Jump up ^ Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. p. 177.Jump up ^ Pat Southern (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. p. 72.Jump up ^ Maurice Sartre (2005). The Middle East Under Rome. p. 354.^ Jump up to: a b Pat Southern (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra s Rebel Queen. p. 78.Jump up ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 292.Jump up ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 108.Jump up ^ Edward Gibbon; Thomas Bowdler (1826). History of the decline and fall of the Roman empire for the use of families and young persons: reprinted from the original text, with the careful omission of all passagers of an irreligious tendency, Volume 1. p. 321.Jump up ^ George C. Brauer (1975). The Age of the Soldier Emperors: Imperial Rome, A.D. 244-284. p. 163.^ Jump up to: a b c d Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 299.Jump up ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 114.Jump up ^ Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. p. 48.^ Jump up to: a b Trevor Bryce (2004). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 302.Jump up ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 61.Jump up ^ Khaleel Ibrahim Muaikel (1994). Dirasah li-āthār Mintaqat al-Jawf. p. 43.Jump up ^ Fergus Millar (1993). The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337. p. 433.Jump up ^ Roxani Eleni Margariti; Adam Sabra; Petra Sijpesteijn (2010). Histories of the Middle East: Studies in Middle Eastern Society, Economy and Law in Honor of A.L. Udovitch. p. 148.Jump up ^ Mohammad Rihan (2014). The Politics and Culture of an Umayyad Tribe: Conflict and Factionalism in the Early Islamic Period. p. 28.Jump up ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 296.^ Jump up to: a b Alaric Watson (2014). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 62.Jump up ^ Pat Southern (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. p. 133.Jump up ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 303.Jump up ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 304.Jump up ^ Alaric Watson (2014). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 63.^ Jump up to: a b c Alaric Watson (2014). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 64.^ Jump up to: a b Warwick Ball (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. p. 80.^ Jump up to: a b Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. p. 179.Jump up ^ David L. Vagi (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, C. 82 B.C.--A.D. 480: History. p. 365.Jump up ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 307.^ Jump up to: a b Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 308.Jump up ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 71.^ Jump up to: a b Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 72.Jump up ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 167.Jump up ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 309.Jump up ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 74.Jump up ^ John Carne; William Purser (1836). Syria, the Holy Land, Asia Minor, &c. illustrated: In a series of views drawn from nature. p. 31.Jump up ^ Pat Southern (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. p. 138.Jump up ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 75.Jump up ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 310.Jump up ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 76.^ Jump up to: a b Alan Bowman; Peter Garnsey; Averil Cameron (2005). The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337. p. 52.Jump up ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 175.^ Jump up to: a b Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 77.^ Jump up to: a b c Warwick Ball (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. p. 81.Jump up ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 313.Jump up ^ Alaric Watson (2014). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 78.Jump up ^ William Ware (1846). Zenobia, Or, The Fall of Palmyra: A Historical Romance in Letters from L. Manlius Piso from Palmyra, to His Friend Marcus Curtius at Rome. p. 242.Jump up ^ Warwick Ball (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. p. 81.^ Jump up to: a b c d e Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. p. 180.Jump up ^ Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. p. 181.Jump up ^ Kevin Butcher (2003). Roman Syria and the Near East. p. 60.^ Jump up to: a b Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 81.Jump up ^ Alan Bowman; Peter Garnsey; Averil Cameron (2005). The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337. p. 515.^ Jump up to: a b Warwick Ball (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. p. 82.^ Jump up to: a b Chase F. Robinson (2010). The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 1, The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries. p. 154.Jump up ^ Fergus Millar (1993). The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337. p. 334.Jump up ^ Ferdinand Lot (2013). The End of the Ancient World. p. 11.Jump up ^ Yāsamīn Zahrān (2003). Zenobia between reality and legend. p. 36.Jump up ^ Philip K. Hitti (2002). History of The Arabs. p. 73.Jump up ^ John Manley (2013). The Romans: All That Matters. p. 15.^ Jump up to: a b Christian Sahner (2014). Among the Ruins: Syria Past and Present. p. 153.Bibliography[edit]Bryce, Trevor (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-191-00292-2.Millar, Fergus (1993). The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-77886-3.Sahner, Christian (2014). Among the Ruins: Syria Past and Present. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-190-25737-8.Smith II, Andrew M (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-199-86110-1.Stoneman, Richard (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08315-2.Watson, Alaric (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-90814-1.Coordinates: 34°33′36″N 38°16′2″EPalmyrene Empire← Vexilloid of the Roman Empire270–273Vexilloid of the Roman Empire →The Palmyrene Empire in AD 271.CapitalPalmyraLanguagesPalmyrene[1]Greek[1]GovernmentMonarchyMonarch • 267/270–272Vaballathus • 273–273AntiochusHistorical eraLate Antiquity • Established270 • Disestablished273

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